Available online at:
https://cc.arcabc.ca/islandora/object/cc%3Apsycjournal

J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(1), pp. 61-81.
Submitted Fall 2020; accepted July 2021.

What Causes an Emotional Response?
Authors: Katrine Pirie*, Olivia Westwood, and Jillian Yendrys
Supervising Instructor & Assistant: Michael Pollock and Kristina Andrew, Psyc 110
(“Experimental Psychology”)
Department of Psychology, Camosun College, 3100 Foul Bay Road, Victoria, BC, Canada V8P 5J2
*Corresponding author email: katpirie@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
In this report, we research to develop a deeper understanding of the causes behind our
emotional responses so that we can learn beneficial strategies for coping with them
appropriately. Previous studies show that emotional responses have been found to vary from
person to person and reflect involvement in the various daily activities of an individual, such as
exposure to the news and listening to music, and can even predict something yet to occur. In our
first (correlational) study, we tested the strength of these relationships by examining naturalistic
daily changes in their variables longitudinally over a two-week period. We measured exposure to
news by rating personal relevance to daily news exposure and induced mood, rated moods after
exposure to music, rated uncertainty of each given day, and emotional response levels using a
modified version of the Profile Of Mood States (SUM-POMS) scale. Data pooled across
participants in our correlational study demonstrated significant correlations of increased
emotional response with personal connection to music, personal relevance to news, and to
confidence levels in daily events. Based on the strength of the correlation found between
personal connection to music and emotional response, we then conducted an experimental study
to test for a causal relationship between these two variables. Over a two-week period, we
randomly assigned participants each day to either purposefully listen to music that they felt a
personal connection to or to listen to no music and measured their emotional response. The
results of our experimental study established a causal role of personal connection to music on
emotional response. A possible practical application of these findings could be that when feeling
overwhelmed by uncertainty and the negative news, listening to music with personal meaning
can help us to have more positive emotional responses, and in turn boost our overall mood and
sense of well-being.
1. Introduction

1.1 Research Problem
There are various reasons why people
experience different emotional responses in
their lives and understanding what

contributes to these responses can help us
have better insight into ourselves and those
around us. In a rapidly changing world,
reading too much negative news can cause
feelings of anxiety, fear or panic, sometimes
leading to larger problems. Certain stimuli,
such as music, trigger powerful emotions
that completely redirect one’s thoughts and
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overall emotional state. Sometimes even an
imagined outcome will elicit an emotional
response, such as fear or excitement, to
events that have yet to occur. Emotions can
drive or hinder personal growth; by
comprehending what causes these emotional
responses, we hope to develop strategies to
cope with these emotions in order to lead a
healthier, more fulfilling life.
1.2 Literature Review
Reading too much negative news can add
stress and anxiety to daily life while positive
news can add positive feelings; however,
personal relevance to issues in the news can
be a contributing to how someone reacts,
and not everyone is affected equally. Few
studies have been done to conclude the
impact that news has on our emotions. One
of the first of its kind, de Hoog and Verboon
conducted a convenience study of 63 willing
participants in their neighbourhood in
Germany to determine the effects of daily
exposure to the news (de Hoog and
Verboon, 2020). Using an ecological
momentary assessment (EMA), the research
was carried out over the course of 10 days,
with each participant checking in up to 5
times per day (minimum of 17/50 check
ins). It is important to note that the sample
used for this study was very limited and
does not properly represent the Dutch
community involved, or the world,
accurately; however, results showed that
negative news every day added more
negative affect and less positive affect to
emotional state. When personal relevance to
the news was higher, the participant would
be affected more negatively, however
personality traits did not seem to have a
relevant effect on the results (de Hoog and
Verboon, 2020).
Music has been previously found to have
connections to causing and changing in

emotional states by activating different
sections in the brain. In an experiment by
Anne J. Blood and Robert J. Zatorre (2001),
McGill University students aged 20 to 30
were told to select a section of a classical
piece that had previously given them chills.
Each student was connected to a polygraph
device in order to record heart rate, electric
currents, respiration depth, electrodermal
response and skin temperature, as well as
undergoing a positron emission tomography
(PET) scan to determine activities in the
brain. With all equipment hooked up and
turned on, each student listened to four
sections of music, their selected music,
control music, amplitude-matched noise, and
silence in no particular order. After each
music section, students rated their chills
intensity and emotional intensity on a scale
of 1 to 10 (10 being most intense) along
with unpleasant versus pleasant on a scale
from -5 to +5 (+5 being the most pleasant).
In the results, Anne J. Blood and Robert J.
Zatorre (2001) found changes in brain
structure similar to those found with arousal
and motor processes more so when the
subjects heard their selected music piece
compared to the controls. Based on these
results, certain music pieces that an
individual personally connects with have the
ability to cause emotional responses.
When faced with unfamiliar or
potentially unpleasant circumstances, our
minds will often overestimate the probability
of negative outcomes. In an experiment by
Dieterich et al. (2016) researchers presented
participants with a series of randomly
generated images. Each image was
preceded by a visual cue, either “O”, “X” or
“?”, indicating the emotional nature of the
image would be neutral, negative, or
uncertain, respectively. After the cue,
participants were to indicate their
expectation of the type of image to follow,
on a scale of 0 – 100 (0 meant the following
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image would be neutral, and 100 meant that
the following image would be negative).
The images were presented in random order,
and never more than two of the same
valences presented in a row. During the
experiment, an EEG was recorded. After the
task, participants were then asked to
estimate what percentage of the images
following the uncertain cue, were of a
negative nature, on a scale of 0 – 100. The
results showed that despite a true 50% split
of neutral and negative images, the
participants both over-expected negative
images (M=52.99, SD = 6.61) and
overestimated the total recurrence of
negative images. The EEG revealed that
there was significant increase in amplitudes
responding to the uncertain cues. This seems
to indicate that in the absence of certainty,
our minds will predict the worst. (Dieterich
et al., 2016).
1.3 Hypotheses
Based on the above literature review, we
predicted the following hypotheses:
● Hypothesis #1: If personal relevance
to negative news increases, then emotional
response will increase.
● Hypothesis #2: If personal
connection to music increases, then
emotional response will increase.
● Hypothesis #3: If uncertainty
increases, then emotional response will
increase.
2. Methods
2.1 Participants
The three authors of this paper served as
the participants in its studies. The
participants ranged in age from 19 - 33 years
old, with an average age of 26.33 years, and
included three females. The participants

were all undergraduate students at Camosun
College who completed the current studies
as an assignment for Psyc 110
(“Experimental Psychology”) and were
grouped together due to their mutual interest
in emotions.
2.2 Materials and Procedure

2.2.1 Correlational Study Methods
We first performed a correlational study
to test concurrently all of our hypotheses by
examining naturalistic daily changes in their
variables longitudinally. Each participant
kept a study journal with them at all times
over this study’s two-week period in order to
record self-observations of the following
four variables: (1) amount of news exposure,
(2) personal connection to music, (3)
uncertainty throughout daily events, and (4)
emotional response levels.
To measure the amount of news
exposure, each participant recorded each
time they were exposed to the news, their
personal relevance to said exposure on a
scale of 0 - 100, and their emotional
response to that news. The following
response anchors were used on the personal
relevance scale: 0 = no personal relevance,
25 = little personal relevance, 50 = some
personal relevance, 75 = quite personally
relevant, 100 = entirely personally relevant.
To measure the personal connection to
music, each participant noted each time they
heard or listened to music and rated their
personal connection to this music on a scale
of 1 -10, 1 = not at all, 5 = somewhat, 10 =
strong.
To measure uncertainty through daily
events, participants rated how confident they
were in the upcoming events of the day.
Participants recorded their confidence in
their study journals upon waking using a
scale of 0 - 10. On this scale, 0 = not at all
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confident, 5 = somewhat confident, and 10 =
completely confident.
To measure emotional response levels,
each participant rated how they felt using the
Shortened Unidirectional Multifaceted
version of the Profile of Mood States (SUMPOMS) Scale. Participants indicated how
they felt from a list of eight basic emotions:
Sadness, Anxiety, Anger, Tiredness,
Confusion, Joy, Contentment, Love, Energy,
or Acuity. Each emotion was rated on a
scale of 0 - 100 to indicate the intensity of
the emotion felt: 0 = not at all, 25= a little,
50 = moderately, 75 = quite a lot, 100 =
extremely. Participants also rated their
overall mood/valence on a scale of -100 to
100: -100 = extremely unpleasant, -50 =
moderately unpleasant, 0 = neutral, 50
moderately pleasant, and 100 = extremely
pleasant.
To assess the strength and statistical
significance of associations between
variables predicted by our three hypotheses,
we performed Pearson product moment
correlations of their predictor variables
(amount of news exposure, personal
connection to music, uncertainty throughout
daily events) with their outcome variable
(emotional response levels). For testing
Hypothesis #1, we correlated the amount of
news participants were exposed to each day
and it’s personal relevance to them, with
their emotional response to the news. For
testing Hypothesis #2, we correlated the
participants’ personal connection to music
with the impact each song had on their
emotional response. For testing Hypothesis
#3, we correlated the daily measure of
confidence in daily events of each
participant with their emotional response.
We performed all of the above correlations
separately for each participant as well as
using data pooled across all of the
participants. For the correlations using
pooled data, in addition to using the raw

data, we also performed correlations after
we had first transformed the data from each
participant into z-scores in order to
standardize differences in averages and
variability seen between the participants in
their data and thus make them more
comparable. A correlation coefficient was
considered statistically significant if the
probability of its random occurrence (p) was
< .05 (i.e., less than 5% of the time expected
by chance alone).
2.2.2 Experimental Study Methods
Based on the strong correlation of
personal connection to music and emotional
response demonstrated by our correlational
study, we have selected the variables from
Hypothesis #2 for an experimental study of
their casual relationship.
We manipulated the independent
variable, personal connection, by
randomizing each participant’s exposure to
music with which they have an emotional
connection over a two-week period. On
experimental days, participants spent 30
minutes purposefully listened to music that
they felt a personal connection to. On
control days, the participant did not
purposefully listen to music they had a
personal connection to, rather, they were
subject to any music that they had heard
randomly throughout the day, or none at all.
To avoid order effects, we randomly
assigned each day of the experiment to
either be experimental or control days. Each
participant flipped a coin each day, heads
meant an experimental day, and tails meant
a control day, allowing for a 50% chance
each day. In order to include an objective
evaluation, each participant enlisted a
friend/relative who lived with them to act as
a blind assistant. The assistant was unaware
of the parameters of the experiment, or
whether the participant had or had not
purposefully listened to music that day. The
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assistant recorded their observations of the
participant’s emotional state each day of the
two-week period but did not inform the
participant when they did so. The
participants also recorded their emotional
response on both experimental and control
days. These ratings were reported on the
same scales and with the same procedures as
described in the above correlational study.
To assess the statistical significance of
differences seen in emotional response on
exposure to music with which participants
felt a personal connection, experimental
days vs. no exposure to music with personal
connection control days, Student’s t-tests
were performed. We performed t-tests
separately for each participant as well as
using data pooled across all participants. For
the t-tests using pooled data, in addition to
using the raw data, we also performed t-tests
after we had first transformed the data from
each participant into z-scores in order to
standardize differences in averages and
variability seen between the participants in
their data and thus make them more
comparable. An average difference between
conditions was considered statistically
significant if, using a two-tailed distribution
(i.e., allowing this difference to be positive
or negative), the probability of its random
occurrence (p) was < .05 (i.e., less than 5%
of the time expected by chance alone).
3. Results
3.1 Correlational Study Results
Table 1 illustrates the significant
correlation of personal relevance of news,
personal connection to music, and
confidence in upcoming events with
emotional response. Although only
statistically significant for two of the three
participants (one participant had r ≤ -0.31 ,
and p ≥ 0.29), confidence in upcoming

events showed a strong correlation with
emotional response using both the pooled
raw data (r = -0.44 p = 0.0029; see Figure 3)
as well as the pooled standardized data (r = 0.55, p = 0.0002). Both personal connection
to music and personal relevance to news
showed statistical significance for all three
participants individually, and were
significantly correlated using the pooled raw
data, with personal connection to music (all
r > .89, p > 1.84) and personal relevance to
news (r > .67, p > 0.0054). Based on our
observations, personal connection to music
appears to have the most significant
correlation with emotional response.
Table 1 also illustrates the significance of
the correlations between personal
connection to music and confidence in
upcoming events with mood. In confidence
in upcoming events, all of the participants
showed statistical significance, and a strong
correlation with overall mood appeared
through the use of pooled raw data (r = .77,
p = 2.98); see Figure 6) and pooled
standardized data (r = .77, p = 1.33).
Similarly, personal connection to music was
statistically significant across all
participants, and using pooled raw data (r =
.83, p = 2.35) On the other hand, personal
relevance of news showed no statistical
significance with mood using any single
participant’s data (all r ≤ -.42, and p ≥
.1414), pooled raw data (r = -.01, p =
0.9584; see Figure 4), or pooled
standardized data (r = -.16, p = .3457).
When comparing the correlation coefficients
including pooled raw data or pooled
standardized data, personal connection to
music had the strongest correlation to mood.
3.2 Experimental Study Results
As seen in Table 2, significant
differences were found in emotional
response levels for personal connection to
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music. Statistically significant differences
between these conditions were seen in two
of three participant’s data (both p < .05), as
well as with raw data pooled (p = 2.35E-13)
(see Figure 7) and pooled standardized data
(p = 8.07E-06).
As seen in Table 3, significant
differences were also found in the blind
observations of one participant’s emotional
response level on experimental vs. control
days. However, the pooled raw data and
pooled standardized data from these
observations across participants were not
statistically significant.
4. Discussion
4.1 Summary of Results
The results of previous studies led us to
hypothesize that the increase of personal
relevance to news (Hypothesis #1), personal
connection to music (Hypothesis #2), and
uncertainty (Hypothesis #3) will produce an
increase in emotional response. The data
pooled in the correlational study for each
participant confirmed our predictions that an
increase in emotional response will result
from the increase in personal relevance to
news, personal connection to music, and
uncertainty (Hypothesis #1, 2, &3).
4.2 Relation of Results to Past Research
The strong relationship found between
emotional response and personal relevance
to news in our correlational study is
consistent with the research conducted by de
Hoog and Verboon (2020) in their previous
study. Their research showed that reading
negative news can create a negative
emotional response while positive news can
create a positive emotional response;
however personal relevance to the news
played a significant role in the level of

emotional response felt. de Hoog and
Verboon (2020) based their results off of a
mixed group of males and females ranging
from 18 to 82 who were selected using
advertisements in the researchers’ social
neighbourhood while we assessed the results
based off of only female college students.
The previous study only included data from
participants who checked in at least five
times a day, while our research
demonstrated emotional response based on
normal daily exposure with no set minimum.
The similarities in these two studies suggests
that a general relationship exists between
personal relevance to news and the intensity
of the emotional response.
Our correlational study supports the
results of previous studies relating emotional
response to a personal connection to music.
The 2001 study by Blood and Zatorre found
an increase in reported emotional intensity
and pleasantness when subjects were
exposed to their selected music with which
they felt an emotional response. The study
by Blood and Zatorre (2001) measured
physical responses and reactions within the
brain as well as self-reported emotions and
emotional intensity, while our study focused
solely on self-reported emotions and
emotional intensity ratings. The results of
our correlational study show a resemblance
to that of the study by Blood and Zatorre
(2001) regardless of the measurements
selected, therefore, there is a strong
relationship between personal connection to
music and emotional response. Our
correlational study allowed for each
participant’s exposure to random and
naturally occurring music while our
experimental study specifically allowed for
each participant to actively listen to music
that they had a connection to or not actively
listen to music, depending on the day.
However, participants may have
encountered other circumstances that
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affected their emotional response. We
recommend that future studies test our
theory in an environment that controls
confounding variables that could potentially
influence the participant’s emotional
response.
The findings of our correlational study on
the relationship between uncertainty of
future events and emotional response
demonstrates consistency with the research
done by Dieterich et al. (2016). Though
Dieterich et al. (2016) had participants in a
lab setting predict the nature of an upcoming
image when there was an equal chance it
could be neutral or aversive, and indicate
their personal emotional response to that
prediction and the actual image, our research
methods measured emotional response in
relation to the potential certainty or
uncertainty in the events of our upcoming
days. Despite using different methods to
study the correlation between uncertainty
and emotions, both studies demonstrated an
increased emotional response as certainty
(confidence) decreased, suggesting that a
relationship exists between these variables.
4.3 Implications of Results
A possible practical application of these
current findings could be that when feeling
overwhelmed by uncertainty and the
negative news, listening to music one
connects with can help to experience more
positive emotional responses, and in turn
boost overall mood and sense of well-being.
We originally conducted the current
studies to understand what causes our

emotional responses and potentially develop
strategies to cope with these emotions,
leading to healthier, more fulfilling lives.
Fortunately, our findings suggest that
listening to music one has an emotional
connection to can be an effective strategy for
reorienting perceived unpleasant emotions,
and possibly contribute to a sense of control
over emotional response. This understanding
of our emotional responses can be an initial
step towards better emotional health,
control, and well-being.

References
Blood, A. J., & Zatorre, R. J. (2001).
Intensely pleasurable responses to music
correlate with activity in brain regions
implicated in reward and emotion.
Proceedings of the National Academy of
Sciences, 98(20), 11818-11823.
https://www.pnas.org/content/98/20/1181
8.short
de Hoog, N., & Verboon, P. (2020). Is the
news making us unhappy? The influence
of daily news exposure on emotional
states. British Journal of Psychology,
111(2), 157-173.
https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/1
0.1111/bjop.12389
Dieterich, R., Endrass, T., & Kathmann, N.
(2016). Uncertainty is associated with
increased selective attention and
sustained stimulus processing. Cognitive,
Affective, & Behavioral Neuroscience,
16(3), 447-456.

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Table 1
Correlation coefficient (r) values, with number of daily trials (n) per correlation in brackets.

Variables
correlated

Participant
#1

Participant
#2

Participant
#3

Pooled raw
data

Pooled
standardized
data

Personal
relevance to
news &
emotional
response

.67(15)*

.97(10)*

.88(14)*

.83(39)*

.82(39)*

Personal
connection to
music &
emotional
response

.89(14)*

.95(13)*

.95(14)*

.93(41)*

.93(41)*

Confidence in
daily events &
emotional
response

-.55(14)*

-.31(14)

-.73(14)*

-0.44(42)*

-0.53(42)*

Personal
relevance to
news & mood

.09(15)

-.17(10)

-.42(14)

-.01(39)

-.16(39)

Personal
connection to
music & mood

.79(14)

.79(13)

.88(14)*

.83(41)*

.82(41)*

Confidence in
daily events &
mood

.06(14)*

.76(14)*

.94(14)*

.77(42)*

.77(42)*

* p < .05.
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Table 2
Descriptive statistics on self-reported emotional response for purposeful listening to music
condition and no purposeful listening to music condition.

Condition
Purposeful
listening to music

No purposeful
listening to music

Statistic
Mean

Participant Participant Participant
#1
#2
#3
78.00*
78.13
65.00*

Pooled
raw
data
73.95*

Pooled
standardized
data
0.65*

S.D.
n

11.51
5

12.8
8

10.95
6

12.86
19

0.61
19

Mean

50.56

59.71

37.5

48.26

-0.54

S.D.
19.44
19.60
16.90
19.81
0.89
n
9
6
8
23
23
Emotional response was measured on a scale of 0 – 100 scale of emotion intensity, 0 = none,
50 = moderately intense, 100 = extremely intense
* p < .05 for comparison of listening condition with its respective no listening condition.

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Table 3
Descriptive statistics on observed emotional response for purposeful listening to music condition
and no purposeful listening to music condition.

Condition
[Purposeful
listening to
music]

[No purposeful
listening to
music]

Statistic
Mean

Blind
Blind
Blind
Participant Participant Participant
#1
#2
#3
55.00
72.13
73.33*

Pooled
raw
data
68.00

Pooled
standardized
data
0.31

S.D.
n

22.18
5

8.81
8

9.83
6

15.51
19

0.81
19

Mean

66.67

59.17

48.75

58.48

-0.26

S.D.
22.08
18.28
15.98
19.91
1.74
n
9
6
8
23
23
Observed emotional response was measured on a scale of 0 – 100 scale of emotion intensity, 0 =
none, 50 = moderately intense, 100 = extremely intense
* p < .05 for comparison of listening condition with its respective no listening condition.

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Figure 1
Scatterplot of personal relevance of news and emotional response using pooled raw data across
participants

Marker color indicates participant: participant #1= red, participant #2= orange, and participant
#3= yellow. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 2
Scatterplot of personal relevance of news and overall mood using pooled raw data across
participants

Marker color indicates participant: participant #1= red, participant #2= orange, and participant
#3= yellow. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 3
Scatterplot of personal connection to music and emotional response using pooled raw data
across participants

Marker color indicates participant: participant #1= red, participant #2= orange, and participant
#3= yellow. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 4
Scatterplot of personal connection to music and overall mood using raw pooled data across
participants

Marker color indicates participant: participant #1= red, participant #2= orange, and participant
#3= yellow. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 5
Scatterplot of confidence and emotional response using pooled raw data across participants

Marker color indicates participant: participant #1= red, participant #2= orange, and participant
#3= yellow. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 6
Scatterplot of confidence and overall mood using pooled raw data across participants

Marker color indicates participant: participant #1= red, participant #2= orange, and participant
#3= yellow. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 7
Bar graph of average self-reported emotional response across purposeful listening to music
condition and no purposeful listening to music condition using pooled raw data from
participants, with error bars showing ± 95% confidence levels, and with an overlapping
scatterplot of data from each participant.

Marker color indicates participant: participant #1= red, participant #2= orange, and participant
#3= yellow.

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Figure 8
Bar graph of average observed emotional response across purposeful listening to music
condition and no purposeful listening to music condition using pooled raw data from blind
participants, with error bars showing ± 95% confidence levels, and with an overlapping
scatterplot of data from each blind participant.

Marker color indicates participant: blind participant #1= red, blind participant #2= orange, and
blind participant #3= yellow.

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Appendix
The Shortened Unidirectional but Multifaceted version of the Profile Of Mood States (SUMPOMS) Scale
by Dr. Michael Pollock, Camosun Psychology

Part A. – Individual Negative & Positive Moods
Using the 0 to 100 range scale shown below, for each of the following moods indicate HOW
MUCH YOU ARE FEELING THEM RIGHT NOW.
0

25

50

75

100

Not at all

A little

Moderately

Quite a lot

Extremely

Negative Moods

Positive Moods

MOOD

SCORE

MOOD

SCORE

Sadness

_____________

Joy

_____________

Adjectives: Depressed, Unhappy,
Blue, Hopeless, Miserable,
Helpless, Worthless, and Sad

Anxiety

_____________

Adjectives: Elevated, Optimistic,
Cheerful, Euphoric, and Joyful

Contentment

_____________

79

Pirie, Westwood, & Yendrys - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(1), pp. 61-81.

Adjectives: Tense, On Edge,
Uneasy, Restless, Nervous, and
Anxious

Anger

_____________

Adjectives: Peeved, Grouchy,
Annoyed, Resentful, Bitter, Hostile,
Furious, and Angry

Tiredness

_____________

Adjectives: Worn Out, Fatigued,
Exhausted, Weary, Bushed, and
Tired

Confusion

_____________

Adjectives: Unable to Concentrate,
Bewildered, Forgetful, Uncertain
About Things, and Confused

Adjectives: At Peace, Satisfied,
Fulfilled, Relaxed, and Contented

Love

_____________

Adjectives: Fond, Adoring,
Affectionate, Tender, Warm-hearted,
and Loving

Energy

_____________

Adjectives: Lively, Active, Full of Pep,
Vigorous, and Energetic

Acuity

_____________

Adjectives: Mentally Sharp, Focused,
Clear Headed, Efficient, Perceptive,
Insightful, and Acute

80

Pirie, Westwood, & Yendrys - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(1), pp. 61-81.

Part B. – Overall Mood/Valence
Using the -100 to 100 range scale shown below, indicate OVERALL HOW YOU ARE
FEELING RIGHT NOW.

-100

-50

0

50

100

Extremely

Moderately

Neutral

Moderately

Extremely

Unpleasant

Unpleasant

Pleasant

Pleasant

Overall Mood Score:

81