Available online at:
https://cc.arcabc.ca/islandora/object/cc%3Apsycjournal

J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.
Submitted Winter 2021; accepted July 2021.

The Effects of Cannabinoids on the Physical Body.
Authors: Kyle Kubisheski*, Fillette Umulisa, and Darcy McDermott
Supervising Instructor: Michael Pollock, Psyc 245 (“Drugs and Behaviour”)
Department of Psychology, Camosun College, 3100 Foul Bay Road, Victoria, BC, Canada V8P 5J2
*Corresponding author email: Kylekubisheski@mac.com

ABSTRACT
In this paper we sought to understand what are the effects of cannabinoids on the body and
how can we enhance the positive effects of cannabinoids while avoiding any negative side
effects. Previous research has suggested that cannabinoids have numerous physiological effects
on the body, including effects on the sense of taste, on withdrawal symptoms, and on body mass.
In this study we measured cannabinoid consumption (g), synthetic THC consumption (mg), and
compared them to measurements of taste palatability, appetite, and withdrawal symptoms rated
on subjective scales. Based on pooled standardized data our results supported associations
between cannabinoids and palatability of sweet tastes, as well as an association between
synthetic THC consumption and withdrawal symptoms, but no support was found for a reduction
in appetite with cannabinoid consumption.
1. Introduction

1.2 Literature Review

1.1 Research Problem

A factor that can predict the effects of
delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) on the
body is how consumption of THC affects
appetite to sweet tastes (sucrose) and
aversive tastes (NaCl). De Luca et al. (2012)
was used an implant to infuse rats with NaCl
and sucrose to observe behaviour after THC
consumption. THC (0.5 or 1.0mg/kg from a
volume of 20 ml/kg) induced hedonic
reactions with sucrose (5% and 20%) and
peaked at 30 minutes as well as having
significant observations at 60 and 120
minutes. Palatability of sweet reward was
found to have significant results, whereas
the aversive tastes had no effect from THC.
Taste palatability was measured using
hedonic valence on a scale of positive,
negative, and neutral behaviours, which
were characterised by observing either paw

With the legalization of cannabinoids
there has been an overall increase of
consumption. We are interested in the
physiological effects on the body of
consuming cannabinoids and exploring the
following questions: After consuming
cannabinoids, can senses of taste, touch, and
hearing be heightened? What are the effects
of long-term marijuana usage on the
physical appearance of the body? Does
physiological dependence (body withdrawal)
occur with cannabinoids and is it greater
with synthetic THC?

1

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

licks and various tongue movements or
gapes, face washing and chin rubs, or
rhythmic tongue movements, respectively.
Each of the behaviours was given one point
if the duration was between one to five
seconds, and given two points if duration of
behaviour was greater than five seconds.
The receptor was discovered to be the
cannabinoid CB1 receptor. After systemic
THC consumption, sucrose increased
dialysate dopamine (DA) in the shell of
n.accumbens. After repeated exposure the
effects wore off creating a level of high
tolerance. De Luca et al. (2012) found this
was a natural reward and not the same as a
drug reward and that consumption of THC
induced palatability of sweets over savery.
Similarly, previous research on the
effects of cannabinoids on the body found
that chronic use of cannabis was associated
with reduced body mass index( BMI) and
waistline circumference. In a study by
Scheffler et al. (2018) researchers studied
the changes in bmi and fasting blood glucose
on cannabis users and nonusers who were
schizophrenic or had a schizo-affective
disorder and were treated according to a
standardized treatment regime with depot
antipsychotic medication over 12 months.
The study included n=109 participants
comprising n=40 (37%) Cannabis users and
n=69 (63%) non users. The participants
were selected from first-admission to
psychiatric hospitals and community clinics
between April 2007 and March 2011 in
Cape Town. The study found that after a
period of 12 months, the BMI had
significantly reduced in participants who
used cannabis which put them at a lower risk
for obesity, and in the participants that did
not use Cannabis, the researchers found that
there was a significant increase in BMI and
an elevated waist-line circumference.
Finally, another effect cannabinoids can
have on the body is withdrawal after

consumption. In an experiment by Trexler et
al. (2020) AB-FUBINACA (0−3 mg/kg,
i.p.) a member of the indazole carboxamide:
family of synthetic cannabinoids, was tested
on adult male and female mice. Their
response was tested repeatedly measuring
catalepsy, antinociception, hypothermia, and
locomotor activity. Experiments were
carried out by technicians who were blinded
to the treatment conditions. For the initial
stage the mice were brought to the test room
for a minimum of one hour prior to testing,
to measure: locomotor activity, catalepsy,
tail immersion, and body temperature.
Throughout the experiment the mice were
weighed daily and injected subcutaneously
(s.c.) with AB-FUBINACA (1 or 3 mg/kg)
or Placebo- saline, every 12 h for 5 days. On
the sixth and final day, all mice received
their final injection of AB-FUBINACA or
placebo. After 30 min, the mice then
received an intraperitoneal injection of
rimonabant (3 mg/kg) a drug given to induce
withdrawal. The dependent variables
measured were: incidences of paw tremors
and head twitches. The results were that
rimonabant significantly increased both paw
tremors and head twitches in mice
repeatedly administered AB-FUBINACA,
compared to Placebo-treated mice. It is
noteworthy that, (using these experimental
procedures) mice administered ABFUBINACA alone did not display
spontaneous somatic withdrawal signs. The
experiment found that AB-FUBINACA
(synthetic cannabinoid) produced classic
cannabimimetic effects, including catalepsy,
antinociception, hypothermia, and
hypolocomotion. The study revealed that
AB-FUBINACA, also produces withdrawal
effects that diminish much more rapidly than
the natural cannabinoids. Therefore we can
infer that the withdrawal effects are more
significant with use of synthetic
2

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

cannabinoids compared to natural, but also
decrease much faster.
1.3 Hypotheses
Based on the above literature review, we
predicted the following hypotheses:
 Hypothesis #1:If cannabinoids
consumption increases, then taste
palatability will increase.
 Hypothesis #2: If cannabinoid
consumption increases, then appetite will
decrease.
 Hypothesis #3: If consumption of
synthetic THC is increased, then
withdrawal symptoms will increase.
2. Methods
2.1 Participants
The three authors of this paper served as
the participants in its studies. The
participants ranged in age from 23 to 29
years old, with an average age of 25 years,
and included two females and one male, all
identifying as cisgender. The participants
were all undergraduate students at Camosun
College who completed the current studies
as an assignment for Psyc 245 (“Drugs and
Behaviour”) and were grouped together due
to their mutual interest in Effects of
Cannabinoids on the physical body.
Participants have all been consuming
Cannabinoids regularly for over twelve
months.
2.2 Materials and Procedure
We performed a correlational study to
test concurrently all of our hypotheses by
examining naturalistic daily changes in their
variables longitudinally. Each participant
kept a study journal with them at all times

over this study’s two-week period in order to
record self-observations of the following 5
variables: (1) taste palatability, (2) reduced
appetite (3) withdrawal symptoms, (4)
cannabinoids consumption, and (5) synthetic
THC consumption.
Every day a participant recorded a journal
for taste palatability and a daily average
score was calculated regardless of
cannabinoid consumption across all meals.
Taste palatability was measured by taste
enjoyment for sweet (glucose), or savory
(avserive), and a subjective scale from 1 to 5
will be used (1 being not enjoyable, and 5
being very enjoyable) for measuring the
specific taste palatability each day. If
cannabinoids were consumed participants
recorded strain and method of consumption
before each meal (see below for cannabinoid
type and route of consumption participants
may have used).
To measure reduced appetite (the desire
to eat food), each participant recorded in
their study journals the frequency of food
consumption (how many meals per day) and
food portions (large, medium, small) each
day. a subjective scale from one to five (1=
maintained appetite, 3= moderately reduced
appetite, 5= extremely reduced) was used to
record reduced appetite each day.
Participants measured and recorded an
average food consumption on days with
multiple food consumptions, and on days
with no food consumption the participants
recorded a score of zero.
To measure withdrawal symptoms, each
each participant noted how they felt at the
beginning of the day and what symptoms of
withdrawal (if any) they experienced.
Symptoms were recorded using the Clinical
Opiate Withdrawal Scale, which measures
the following symptoms: pulse, sweating,
restlessness, bone or joint aches, running
nose or tearing, GI upset, tremor, yawning,
anxiety and irritability. A clinical
3

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

withdrawal form (see the Appendix) was
filled out explaining symptoms experienced
at the beginning of the day before any
cannabinoids were consumed for that day. A
scoring system was provided in the
withdrawal scale: 5-12 = mild; 13-24 =
moderate; 25-36 = moderately severe; more
than 36 = severe withdrawal.
To measure cannabinoid consumption,
each participant recorded in their study
journal the type of cannabinoids (sativa,
indica, hybrid), amount of cannabinoids
consumed in grams (g), and route of
consumption (smoke/ joint, pills) each day.
On days where multiple cannabinoid
consumption occurred, the participants
recorded an average of cannabinoid
consumption, and on days with no
cannabinoid consumption a score of zero
was recorded.
To measure synthetic THC consumption,
mg of THC in consumed edibles containing
synthetic THC were measured. Each
participant recorded the number of edibles
consumed and the dose of synthetic THC
that was contained in the product (mg). On
days where multiple edibles were consumed,
the participants recorded the number of all
edible consumptions, and on days with no
cannabinoid consumption a score of zero
was recorded.
To assess the strength and statistical
significance of associations between
variables predicted by our three hypotheses,
we performed Pearson product moment
correlations of their predictor variables (taste
palatability, reduced appetite, and
significance of withdrawal symptoms) with
their outcome variable (cannabinoids
consumption and synthetic THC
consumption). For testing Hypothesis #1, we
correlated the total amount of cannabinoid
consumed by each participant each day with
what the participant's taste palatability was.
For Hypothesis #2, we correlated the

consumption of cannabinoids by each
participant each day with how much food
the participant consumed. For testing
Hypothesis #3, we correlated that the use of
synthetic THC edibles, will result in
participants experiencing increased
withdrawal symptoms. We performed all of
the above correlations separately for each
participant as well as using data pooled
across all of the participants. For the
correlations using pooled data, in addition to
using the raw data, we also performed
correlations after we had first transformed
the data from each participant into z-scores
in order to standardize differences in
averages and variability seen between the
participants in their data and thus make them
more comparable. A correlation coefficient
was considered statistically significant if the
probability of its random occurrence (p) was
< .05 (i.e., less than 5% of the time expected
by chance alone).
3. Results
As shown in Table 1, withdrawal
symptoms, appetite level and palatability to
savory and sweet were significantly
correlated with cannabinoid consumption.
Although not being significant for any single
participant (all r ≤ 0.53, and all p ≥ 0.05; see
Table 1), taste palatability for sweets was
significantly correlated with cannabinoids
consumed using the pooled standardized
data (r = 0.46, p = 0.0021; see Figure 1B)
but not using the pooled raw data (r = 0.19,
p = 0.224; see Figure 1A). Taste palatability
for savoury was significantly correlated with
cannabinoids consumed for Participant #2 (r
= -0.63, p = 0.015) and Participant #3 (r =
0.74, p = 0.0015) but not for Participant #1
(r = 0.08, p = 0.802), where the pooled raw
data was significant (r = 0.31, p = 0.046; see
Figure 2A) but the pooled standardized data
4

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

was not significant (r = 0.06, p = 0.689; see
Figure 2B).
Withdrawal symptoms were significantly
correlated with synthetic cannabinoid
consumption for Participants #1 (r = 0.61, p
= 0.019) and #3 (r = 0.82, p = 0.0001), but
not for Participant #2 (r = 0.50, p = 0.069),
although the significance was seen using
both the pooled standardized data (r = 0.64,
p = 1.938E-06; see Figure 3A) and the
pooled raw data (r = 0.53, p = 0.00019; see
Figure 3B).
Testing appetite in relation to
cannabinoid consumption found significant
correlations for Participant #2 (r = -0.61, p =
0.02) and Participant #3 (r = 0.54, p
=0.047), but not for Participant #1 ( r= 0.17,
p= 0.56, see Table 1) and not when using
either the pooled raw data (r = 0.20, p =
0.19; see Figure 4A) or the standardized
pooled data (r = 0.03, p = 0.83; see Figure
4B).
Based on comparison of the correlation
coefficients using both pooled raw data and
standardized pooled data, the withdrawal
symptoms had the strongest correlation with
cannabinoid consumption, as well as taste
palatability for sweets had the second
strongest correlation with cannabinoid
consumption based off the pooled
standardized data.
4. Discussion
4.1 Summary of Results
Of the three tested hypotheses, our results
found the strongest correlation for
cannabinoid consumption was withdrawal
symptoms. Similarly, the hypothesis that
taste palatability will increase with
cannabinoid consumption also found
positive correlation results. Whereas, for the
hypothesis that if cannabinoid consumption
increases then appetite will decrease, we

found no significant evidence correlating the
two variables.
4.2 Relation of Results to Past Research
For the hypothesis that if cannabinoids
consumption increases then taste palatability
will increase, support was found in our
correlational study. Our findings fall in line
with previous research conducted by De
Luca et al (2012). Where rats were tested for
their taste palatability based off behaviour
for sweets (licking of paws and lips; wanting
more) and savoury (face washing, chin rubs;
and rejection behaviours) after being
injected with cannabinoids. De Luca et al.
(2012) found that after cannabinoid
consumption, rats preferred sweets over
savoury. While De Luca et al. (2012) used
mice as their research participants, while our
study used human participants who regularly
consume cannabinoid substances. Our study
also compared taste palatability for sweets
and savoury variables with cannabinoid
consumption to observe separate data for
each, and found palatability for sweets was
more desirable than savoury after
cannabinoid consumption. The findings for
both De Luca et al. (2012), and our study
had different research design methods, but
both had similar findings within the research
suggesting that taste palatability for sweets
increases as cannabinoid consumption
increases.
For the hypothesis that if consumption of
synthetic THC is increased then withdrawal
symptoms will increase, our study found
that the pooled standardized data and pooled
raw data both showed significant
correlations, where withdrawal symptoms
strongly correlated with synthetic
cannabinoid consumption. Similarly, the
initial experiment by Trexler et al. (2020)
found in mice that withdrawal symptoms are
more significant with synthetic cannabinoid
5

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

use than with natural cannabinoid
derivatives. While some details were
different such as the mice were injected with
the synthetic THC substance
subcutaneously, whereas in the human trial
the synthetic THC was ingested by mouth
and absorbed through the gastrointestinal
system.
For the hypothesis that if cannabinoid
consumption increases then appetite will
decrease, we found no significant correlation
between the relationship of cannabinoid
consumption and appetite for the pooled
data and raw pooled data, even though
Participants #2 and #3 both had significant
results. Scheffler et al. (2018) had found in
their study that participants who tested
positive for cannabis had less of an increase
in body mass index (BMI), than participants
who tested negative for cannabis. The
difference between both studies is that
Scheffler et al. (2018) had been testing with
schizophrenia patients who typically suffer
from obesity and cardiometabolic
complications and were on antipsychotic
medication. They also used a larger sample
size (126 participants) over twelve months
and recorded BMI, where our study used
three participants over a two weeks period
and no BMI was recorded, only appetite.

Further studies will need to be done in order
to directly compare all of these variables.

References
De Luca, M., Solinas, M., Bimpisidis, Z.,
Goldberg, S., & Di Chiara, G. (2012).
Cannabinoid facilitation of behavioral
and biochemical hedonic taste responses.
Neuropharmacology, 63(1), 161-168. doi:
10.1016/j.neuropharm.2011.10.018
Scheffler, F., Kilian, S., Chiliza, B., Asmal,
L., Phahladira, L., du Plessis, S., Kidd,
M., Murray, R. M., Di Forti, M., Seedat,
S., & Emsley, R. (2018). Effects of
cannabis use on body mass, fasting
glucose and lipids during the first 12
months of treatment in schizophrenia
spectrum disorders. Schizophrenia
Research, 199, 90–95. https://doiorg.libsecure.camosun.bc.ca:2443/10.101
6/j.schres.2018.02.050
Trexler, K. R., Vanegas, S. O., Poklis, J. L.,
& Kinsey, S. G. (2020). The short-acting
synthetic cannabinoid AB-FUBINACA
induces physical dependence in mice.
Drug and Alcohol Dependence, 214.
https://doiorg.libsecure.camosun.bc.ca:2443/10.101
6/j.drugalcdep.2020.108179

6

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

Table 1
Correlation coefficient (r) values, with number of daily trials (n) per correlation in brackets.

Variables correlated
Taste palatability (Sweet)
& Cannabinoids consumed
Taste palatability (Savory)
& Cannabinoids consumed
Withdrawal symptoms &
Synthetic THC
consumed
Reduced appetite &
Cannabinoids consumed

Participant Participant Participant
#1
#2
#3

Pooled
raw data

Pooled
standardized
data

0.36(14)

0.48(14)

0.53(14)

0.19(42)

0.46(42)*

0.08(14)

-0.63(14)*

0.74(14)*

0.31(42)*

0.06(42)

0.61(14)*

0.50(14)

0.82(14)*

0.53(42)*

0.64(42)*

0.17(14)

-0.61(14)*

0.54(14)*

0.20(42)

0.03(42)

* p < .05.

7

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

Figure 1
Scatterplot of cannabinoids consumed and taste palatability (sweet) of Pooled raw data (A) and
pooled standardized data (B)
A.

8

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

B.

Marker color indicates which participants data is from. Red = participant #1, Orange =
participant #2, yellow = participant #3. Some data may not be visible due to overlapping
markers.

9

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

Figure 2
Scatterplot of cannabinoids consumed and taste palatability (savory) of Pooled raw data (A) and
pooled standardized data (B)
A.

10

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

B

Marker color indicates which participants data is from. Red = participant #1, Orange = participant
#2, yellow = participant #3. Some data may not be visible due to overlapping markers.

11

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

Figure 3.
Scatterplot of synthetic cannabinoids (THC) consumed and withdrawal symptoms of Pooled raw
data (A) and pooled standardized data (B)
A.

12

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

B.

Marker color indicates which participants data is from. Red = participant #1, Orange =
participant #2, yellow = participant #3. Some data may not be visible due to overlapping
markers.

13

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

Figure 4
A.Scatterplot of cannabis consumed and reduced appetite using raw data (A) and pooled
standardized data (B)
A.

14

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

B.

Marker color indicates which participants data is from. Red = participant #1, Orange =
participant #2, yellow = participant #3. Some data may not be visible due to overlapping
markers.

15

Kubisheski, Umulisa, & McDermott - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2021). Vol. 3(2), pp. 1-16.

Appendix
Clinical Opiate Withdrawl Scale

16