Available online at:
https://cc.arcabc.ca/islandora/object/cc%3Apsycjournal

J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.
Submitted Fall 2021; accepted June 2022.

The Biological Mechanisms of Emotion.
Authors: Maya Kay*, Isabel Ma, and Eliette Holland
Supervising Instructor: Michael Pollock, Psyc 215 (“Biological Psychology”)
Department of Psychology, Camosun College, 3100 Foul Bay Road, Victoria, BC, Canada V8P 5J2
*Corresponding author email: mayadskay@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
In this paper, we sought to understand the biological mechanisms of emotions, so that we
could learn more about how emotions work. Previous research has linked the brain and emotion
in structures such as the postcentral gyrus, the posterior parietal cortex, and the orbitofrontal
cortex. In our first (correlational) study, we tested the strength of these relationships by
examining naturalistic daily changes in their variables longitudinally over a one-week period.
We measured postcentral gyrus functioning by the Two Point Discrimination Test, posterior
parietal cortex functioning by using the PEBL Connections Test, orbitofrontal cortex functioning
by using the Go-NoGo task, positive emotions by evaluating external stimuli for emotional
response, perfectionism by a Negative Perfectionism questionnaire, and emotional dysregulation
with an emotional dysregulation questionnaire. Based on the strength of correlation found
between orbitofrontal cortex functioning and emotional dysregulation in our correlational study,
we then conducted a second experimental study to test for a causal relationship between these
two variables. Over a one-week period, participants alternated each day to either a meditative
condition or a non-meditative condition and measured the effect this manipulation had upon
emotional dysregulation. Data pooled across participants in our correlational study showed a
positive correlation between emotion dysregulation and orbitofrontal cortex functioning, but no
significant correlation between postcentral gyrus functioning and positive emotion nor between
posterior parietal functioning and negative perfectionism. Data pooled across participants in our
experimental study showed no significant difference in emotional dysregulation between days
participants meditated and days participants did not meditate. A potential practical application of
our correlational study would be the use of the Go-NoGo task to predict emotional dysregulation.
While our studies were not successful in finding a way to help control our emotions, they did
further our understanding of emotions by showing aspects that were correlated, or not, with the
functioning of particular brain areas.
1. Introduction
1.1 Research Problem
Emotions are common occurrences, but
the underlying or entwined biological
mechanisms behind them are still not fully

understood. Our emotions can be a result of
external stimuli. By gaining an
understanding of the neurochemical
communication between the environment
and our psychology will further our
understanding of emotions. Some emotions
have detrimental effects on mental and
14

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

physical well being. Students setting high
standards for themselves create extra
pressure for assignments and exams, making
studying more stressful and difficult, leading
to decreased grades, thereby increasing and
creating a spiral of stress and other negative
emotions. By gaining an understanding of
the link between how emotions are brought
on and impact behaviour we can attempt to
better understand emotional responses and
outbursts that may otherwise seem irrational.
We hope that learning more about the
biological factors affecting emotion will
help pave the way to helping people manage
emotions and improve their mental and
physical well-being.
1.2 Literature Review
One neural factor previously found to
predict aesthetic experience and emotional
responses is activity in the right postcentral
gyrus. For example, in a correlational study
by Yeh et al. (2018), a sample group of
twenty-six college students, with equal
numbers of males and females ranging in
age from 20-29 years, were presented with a
series of ninety images. Participants were
instructed to evaluate their aesthetic
experience ranging from beautiful, medium
and ugly. With fMRI, participants' brains
were scanned while images of design were
presented and participants rated the images
with 1 = negative, 2 = neutral, or 3 =
positive in aesthetic experience. They did
this again asking participants to rate the
emotional arousal of the stimuli ranging
from 1= very weak, 2 =weak, 3= strong, and
4 = very strong in emotional response. The
researchers then calculated the scores of
aesthetic emotion by multiplying the scores
of emotional arousal to calculate the
correlation of weight of emotion for each
stimuli. The results of the correlation
between both groups showed that aesthetic

judgment and aesthetic emotion have a
significant correlation. During the fMRI
scanning, both aesthetic judgment and
aesthetic emotion stimulated the same
regions of the brain depending on the 1-4
rating of beauty/ugly and emotional
weighting of strong/weak. The region of the
brain showing significant activity for
positive emotions was the right postcentral
gyrus. Based on these results, the
researchers suggested that the postcentral
gyrus is significant for positive judgement
and emotions.
Another biological factor previously
found to predict emotions is an association
between larger posterior parietal cortices in
individuals with higher negative
perfectionism. For example, in a
correlational study by Karimizadeh et al,
(2015), a group of forty-nine adults each
answered a questionnaire about positive and
negative perfectionism where they rated how
much they agreed or disagreed with twenty
questions. Participants then received an
MRI scan of their entire brain. Using voxelbased morphometry, a method of dividing
the brain into small cubes, it was found that
higher grey matter volume of the left
precuneus, or left posterior parietal cortex,
was related to increased negative
perfectionism. While close, the results did
not significantly link the precuneus to
negative perfectionism, but previous
research on aspects of perfectionism, such as
self-processing operations and persistence,
further supports this link. Based on these
results, the researchers suggested that the
posterior parietal cortex plays a role in the
negative effects of perfectionism.
A third factor previously found to predict
the capacity of emotion regulation is the
volume of the lateral orbitofrontal cortex.
For example, in a correlational study by
Petrovic et al. (2016), participants were
screened for emotional dysregulation using
15

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

the score from the emotion section of the
brown attention deficit disorder scale. They
then measured these results in correlation
with the grey matter volume in the lateral
orbitofrontal cortex using MRI imaging.
Based on these results, the researchers
suggested that reduced grey matter volume
in the lateral orbitofrontal cortex was
directly correlated with individuals who
displayed emotional dysregulation.
1.3 Hypotheses
Based on the above literature review, we
predicted the following hypotheses:
Hypothesis #1: If postcentral gyrus
functioning increases then positive emotions
will increase.
Hypothesis #2: If posterior parietal cortex
functioning increases then negative
perfectionism will increase.
Hypothesis #3: If orbitofrontal cortex
functioning increases then emotional
dysregulation will decrease.
2. Methods
2.1 Participants
The three authors of this paper served as
the participants in its studies. The
participants ranged in age from 19-23 years
old, with an average age of 21 years, and
included three females. The participants
were all undergraduate students at Camosun
College who completed the current studies
as an assignment for Psychology 215
Biological Psychology and were grouped
together due to their mutual interest in the
biological mechanisms of emotions. Other
external variables included changes in
homework, inconsistent amounts slept, and a
participant with a mood related disorder.
2.2 Correlational Study Methods

We first performed a correlational study
to test concurrently all of our hypotheses by
examining naturalistic daily changes in their
variables longitudinally. Each participant
kept a study journal with them at all times
over this study’s two-week period in order to
record self-observations of the following 6
variables: (1) postcentral gyrus functioning,
(2) posterior parietal cortex functioning, (3)
orbitofrontal cortex functioning, (4) positive
emotions, (5) negative perfectionism, and
(6) emotional dysregulation.
2.2.1 Postcentral Gyrus Functioning
To measure postcentral gyrus
functioning, we conducted the Two Point
Discrimination Test on a daily basis in the
evening. The premise of the test is to
distinguish the two objects touching the skin
with as little distance possible. Using two
sharp objects (pencil tips or paperclips),
participants identified whether they were
touched on their skin with two objects at the
same time or one object. Participants were
asked to conduct the test daily, preferably in
the evening, on their shin, eyes closed, and
with an assistant to do the poking.
Participants then recorded in their journal
the measurement of distance in millimeters
(mm). The results of the test were used to
indicate how refined participants'
somatosensory perceptions were and thus
how well their postcentral gyrus was
functioning.
2.2.2 Posterior Parietal Cortex Functioning
To measure posterior parietal cortex
functioning, each participant completed the
PEBL Connections Test once a day,
typically in the evening before heading to
sleep, for 7 days. In the test, participants
were presented with several randomly
generated 7x7 grids of circles, one grid at a
time. Each circle in the grid had one number
or letter, where the next number or letter is
adjacent to any selected circle. For example,
the number 8 would be somewhere adjacent
16

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

to the number 7. The participants were
given 20 seconds to click on as many of the
circles as possible while following an
alphabetical or increasing order of numbers,
letters, or an alternating pattern of both (for
example, A, 1, B, 2, C, 3 or 1, A, 2, B, 3, C).
The results included several data points,
including the number of total, correct, and
incorrect clicks. The greater the average
number of correct clicks, the better the
posterior parietal cortex functioning. To
calculate the average number of correct
clicks, the total number of correct clicks is
divided by the total number of clicks. To do
this, data from file “connections-path-XX#”,
where XX# is a placeholder for PEBL’s
participant code, was used, and the
following formula was applied in Excel,
“=SUM(M1:MX)/COUNT(M1:MX)”,
where X is a placeholder for the number
indicating the last row of column M with
data.
2.2.3 Orbitofrontal Cortex Functioning
To measure orbitofrontal cortex
functioning, participants were asked to
complete the Go-NoGo task, on the Psych
lab 101 app, daily, preferably in the evening,
and keep a log of their scores for later
evaluation. The Go-NoGo task asked the
participants to give a motor response to a
visual stimulus, hitting the screen when a
particular symbol appeared. The results were
calculated by the accuracy of the test.
2.2.4 Positive Emotions
To measure positive emotion response,
participants were asked to evaluate the
emotional response to photos of everyday
design elements using a random image
generator found online. Participants then
evaluated their positive or negative
responses on a 3 point scale, evaluating
reactions from 1=negative, 2=neutral, and
3=positive. Participants then measured their
emotional responses to the stimuli on a 4
point scale, evaluating the emotional

response from 1= very weak, 2 =weak, 3=
strong, and 4 = very strong in emotional
response. Participants were exposed to three
pictures daily, preferably in the evening,
rated them with the two categories and then
recorded their results. The summed scores
from these two scales were used to
determine the positive emotional experience
of the day.
2.2.5 Negative Perfectionism
Negative perfectionism was measured by
participants filling out a Negative
Perfectionism Scale once a day each day for
7 days, typically near the end of the day
before heading to sleep. The questionnaire
was modified from a Positive and Negative
Perfectionism Scale (PANPS) by removing
positive perfectionism questions, rephrasing
statements into questions, removing
references to lifetime factors such as
childhood, and trying to avoid the word
“perfect”. It measured the amount of
negative perfectionism participants
experienced that day. Participants answered
20 questions with how much they felt they
were affected, with 1 = not at all; 2 = not
much, a little; 3 = neutral; 4 = moderate; 5 =
lots, very. The results were summed and the
greater the number, the more negative
perfectionism was present. See Appendix B2 for the modified questionnaire used and a
more detailed explanation of the
modifications made to it.
2.2.6 Emotional Dysregulation
To measure emotional dysregulation
participants were asked to complete a
modified version of the Difficulties in
Emotion Regulation Scale (DERS) each day,
preferably in the evening. The scale
measures nonacceptance, acceptance, goaldirected behaviour, impulse control,
emotional awareness, regulation strategies
and emotional clarity, through 36 questions
that rate the general experience of emotions
on a one to five scale based on frequency of
17

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

occurrence. Modifications to the DERS were
made by changing the format of questions so
they applied to daily measurements rather
than lifelong, and the amount of questions
was also reduced to 23 by removing
questions that did not apply to a daily
measurement as well as removing those that
fell under the regulation strategies category.
The score of the test determined the amount
of emotion regulation the participants
experienced throughout their day, ranging
from -25 (low emotional dysregulation) to
67 (high emotional dysregulation).
2.3 Correlational Study Planned Analyses
To assess the strength and statistical
significance of associations between
variables predicted by our 3 hypotheses, we
performed Pearson product moment
correlations of their predictor variables (post
central gyrus functioning, posterior parietal
cortex functioning, and orbitofrontal cortex
functioning) with their outcome variables
(positive emotions, negative perfectionism,
and emotional dysregulation). For testing
Hypothesis #1, we correlated Two Point
Discrimination Test scores with the positive
reception to images. For testing Hypothesis
#2, we correlated PEBL Connections Test
scores with negative perfectionism scores.
For testing Hypothesis #3, we correlated GoNoGo task scores with emotional scores. We
performed all of the above correlations
separately for each participant as well as
using data pooled across all of the
participants. For the correlations using
pooled data, in addition to using the raw
data, we also performed correlations after
we had first transformed the data from each
participant into z-scores in order to
standardize differences in averages and
variability seen between the participants in
their data and thus make them more
comparable. A correlation coefficient was
considered statistically significant if the

probability of its random occurrence (p) was
< .05 (i.e., less than 5% of the time expected
by chance alone).
2.4 Experimental Study Methods
Based on the strength of the correlation
between orbitofrontal cortex functioning and
emotional dysregulation found in our
correlational study, we then chose to
conduct an experimental study to test for a
causal relationship between these two
variables from Hypothesis #3.
We manipulated the independent
variable, orbitofrontal cortex functioning,
over a one-week period by alternating
between meditate experimental condition
days or non-meditate control condition days.
Participants also chose an individual
(referred to as “chosen individual”), ideally
the same throughout the experiment, who
did not know whether the participant
meditated or not, to rate the participant’s
emotional dysregulation for that day using
the same questionnaire as the participants.
On the meditate days, participants used a
meditation from the app Headspace for five
minutes, each time picking the next
meditation from the sequence of “Basic”
meditations. The basic meditations were a
sequence of 10 guided meditations where,
for each, the user listened to the meditation
guide and followed their guidance, for
example to take deep breaths, return to
natural breathing, close one’s eyes, then
mentally scan one’s body, then focus on
breathing. On the non-meditate days
participants did not meditate.
Both days participants measured their
emotions three times a day, once at the
beginning shortly after waking up, once in
the afternoon, and once in the evening, using
an app called Daylio. The app asked users to
rate their mood out of a list, by default “rad,
good, meh, bad, and awful”, then asked the
user to indicate what they were doing by
18

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

selecting as many things as they desired
from groups of activities, for example
“Social: family, friends, date party”,
“Hobbies: movies & tv, reading, gaming
sport, relax”, “Better Me: meditation (for the
purposes of this experiment, this was left
unticked regardless if the participant
meditated or not), kindness, listen, donate,
give gift” and more, and the user could write
whatever they wished in a note. This
information was not used for scoring.
Instead, it was used to assist the participant
in more accurately recounting their day to
their chosen individual by quickly recording
down glimpses of what the participant was
thinking and doing at various points in the
day.
At the end of the day, participants
completed the Go-NoGo test (making sure
to not look at the score until later), and
measured emotional dysregulation via the
same questionnaire used in the correlational
study for Hypothesis #3 (See Appendix A).
As well, each participant told their chosen
individual about their day and showed them
the entries in Daylio (an emotions journal
app), then their chosen individual filled out
the same questionnaire to rate the
participant’s emotional dysregulation.
Since it was impossible for the participant
to not know whether they meditated that day
or not, other measures were taken to avoid
other confounding factors affecting the
measurements. One measure taken was to
alternate between meditation and nonmeditation days to control for order effects.
Another measure taken was to do a
manipulation check by continuing to
complete the Go-NoGo test to test whether
there was a tangible change in orbitofrontal
cortex functioning, which was significantly
correlated with emotional dysregulation in
the correlational study in this paper. Also,
participants used the same guided
meditations from Headspace to ensure they

had similar experiences. Another measure
taken was to find an individual who did not
know if the participant meditated that day to
rate the participant’s emotional
dysregulation. As well, participants
regularly recorded their day in an app called
Daylio to reduce any bias in the participant’s
retelling of the day from events that
happened later in the day. (For example, if
the participant had an enjoyable morning
and afternoon, but in the evening received a
failing grade for an important test, the
participant might give their chosen
individual a biased account of the day due to
focusing on the negative event.) To avoid
participant’s expectations when seeing
measurements affecting others
measurements, participants did not look at
the scores until after all measurements were
taken.
2.5 Experimental Study Planned Analyses
To assess the statistical significance of
differences seen in emotional dysregulation
on meditation experimental days vs. nonmeditation control days, Student’s t-tests
were performed. We performed t-tests
separately for each participant as well as
using data pooled across all of the
participants. For the t-tests using pooled
data, in addition to using the raw data, we
also performed t-tests after we had first
transformed the data from each participant
into z-scores in order to standardize
differences in averages and variability seen
between the participants in their data and
thus make them more comparable. An
average difference between conditions was
considered statistically significant if, using a
one-tailed distribution (i.e., to determine if
there is a difference between groups in a
specific direction), the probability of its
random occurrence (p) was < .05 (i.e., less
than 5% of the time expected by chance
alone).
19

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

3. Results
3.1 Correlational Study Results
As shown in Table 1, orbitofrontal cortex
functioning was significantly correlated with
emotional dysregulation. Correlations
between postcentral gyrus functioning and
positive emotion was found to be
statistically insignificant in the pooled raw
data (r = -.25, p = 0.28, see Figure 1) and the
pooled standardized data (r = -.31, p = 0.17,
Figure 2), but was statistically significant for
Participant #2 (r = -0.79, p = 0.03).
Posterior parietal functioning was not
significantly correlated with negative
perfectionism, whether for any single
participant (all r ≤ 0.36, all p ≥ 0.45), pooled
raw data (r = 0.23, p = 0.32, see Figure 3),
or pooled standardized data (r = 0.22, p =
0.33, see Figure 4).
Orbitofrontal cortex functioning and
emotion dysregulation was significantly
correlated using the pooled raw data (r = .68, p = 0.0003, see Figure 5) and the pooled
standardized data (r = -.48, p = 0.0282, see
Figure 6), but not for Participant #1 (r = .03, p = 0.96) and #3 (r = -0.60, p = 0.17).
From a comparison of the correlation
coefficients from the pooled standardized
data, in order to standardize individual
differences in how participants used the
subjective scales, the strongest correlation
was between orbitofrontal cortex
functioning and emotional dysregulation.
3.2 Experimental Study Results
As shown in Table 2 and Table 3, no
statistically significant difference was found
between meditate and non-meditate
conditions for levels of emotional
dysregulation when either self-measured and
other-measured. No single participant’s

results were significant (all self-measured p
≥ 0.22; all other-measured p ≥ 0.077). The
pooled raw data was not significant (selfmeasured p = 0.19, see Figure 7; othermeasured p = 0.20, see Figure 9), and the
pooled standardized data was not significant
(self-measured p = 0.19; see Figure 8; othermeasured p = 0.14, see Figure 10).
4. Discussion
4.1 Summary of Results
Based on previous research, we created
three separate hypotheses about the
functioning of different brain areas for
different aspects of emotions: postcentral
gyrus functioning with positive emotions
(Hypothesis #1), posterior parietal cortex
functioning with perfectionism (Hypothesis
#2), and orbitofrontal cortex functioning
with emotional dysregulation (Hypothesis
#3). Data pooled across participants in our
correlational study supported the predicted
relationship of orbitofrontal cortex
functioning and emotional dysregulation
(Hypothesis #3), but did not support
postcentral gyrus functioning with positive
emotions (Hypothesis #1) or posterior
parietal cortex functioning with
perfectionism (Hypothesis #2). However,
based on our experimental study, we could
not establish a causal relationship between
meditation and emotional dysregulation.
4.2 Relation of Results to Past Research
Our correlational study failed to confirm
a relationship between postcentral gyrus
functioning and the reception of positive
emotion. Unlike our correlational study, Yeh
et al. (2018) found positive correlations
between the activity expressed in the
postcentral gyrus and positive emotion. Yeh
et al. (2018) conducted a larger sample of
20

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

photo stimuli and MRI scanning proving
significant relations, whereas our study did
not utilize brain scanning material and
instead assessed brain functioning through
conducting the Two Point Discrimination
Test and had a smaller sample of photo
stimuli. While the Two Point Discrimination
Test is a good alternative for direct brain
scaning, the findings did not hold a
significant result. Future study suggestions
would recommend utilizing a larger photo
stimuli sample size to measure the
correlation between positive emotions and
postcentral gyrus functioning.
Our correlational study also failed to
confirm the relationship between posterior
parietal functioning and negative
perfectionism. This matches Karimizadeh et
al. (2015) who found, by measuring
perfectionism via a questionnaire and grey
matter volume of brain areas using an MRI,
that, while close, there was no significant
correlation between the two (p = 0.175 for
precuneus). However, Karimizadeh et al.
(2015) referred to past research that did
confirm a correlation. In contrast, our study
did not find it to be close to significant (p =
0.33). This may be due to a smaller sample
size, subjectivity of or modifications to the
perfectionism questionnaire, or from
measuring the brain area differently:
indirectly measuring functioning of the
posterior parietal cortex with the PEBL
Connections Test. Future studies could
examine if there is a correlation between the
PEBL Connections Test and activity of or
grey matter volume of the posterior parietal
cortex, if the modified questionnaire is a
good way of measuring perfectionism, or
trying the experiment again with a less
subjective measurement of perfectionism.
Just as in the study by Petriovic et al.
(2016) a positive correlation between
orbitofrontal cortex functioning and emotion
regulation was supported in our correlational

results. Our correlational study used the GoNoGo task as a measure for orbitofrontal
functioning and a substitute for the MRI
scans of gray matter volume in the same
area used by Petrovic et al. (2016). A future
study could try to determine if the Go-NoGo
task would be able to predict emotional
dysregulation, perhaps having participants
complete the Go-NoGo task earlier in the
day, as opposed to then measuring emotional
dysregulation in the evening shortly before
going to sleep as done in the correlational
study.
Our results from the experimental study
of the effect of meditation on emotional
dysregulation did not find a causal
relationship between emotional
dysregulation and meditation. The study by
Petriovic et al. (2016) was only
correlational, therefore they were unable to
establish a causal relationship between
orbitofrontal cortex activity and emotional
dysregulation. However, a study by
Wattford and Stafford (2014) supported
mindfulness as a potential tool to assist in
increased emotional awareness and reduced
emotional avoidance. Watford's study used
mindfulness training which employs similar
skills to those practiced in meditation such
as deep breathing and clearing of the mind.
Watford and Stafford (2014) concluded that
mindfulness training was effective in
acknowledging and experiencing emotions
which are both assets to emotional
regulation. Differences between our studies
were duration of mindfulness sessions,
(theirs 15 minutes, ours 5), number of
participants’ data analyzed (theirs 70, ours
3), and they subjected participants to stimuli,
such as photos or sounds, that were intended
to induce positive or negative emotions,
while our study measured our emotions at
the end of an uncontrolled day. One factor
that may have affected our experimental
results was the small amount of data
21

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

collected (3 participants for 7 days). While
that would likely show a significance for
something with a dramatic effect (for
example, if one meditation alone was able to
counter any emotional dysregulation caused
by an otherwise “bad” day), that may not be
enough data to show a smaller effect.
Another reason for the lack of significance
may be other factors and life events
overshadowing the effect of meditation. For
example, the participants noticed that if they
had a “bad” day on a meditate day, their
emotional dysregulation was higher than if
they had a “good” day on a non-meditate
day. One idea for a future study would be
running the experiment for longer with more
participants to see if meditation has a more
subtle effect on emotional dysregulation. As
well, perhaps using participants in a more
stable and less emotional environment,
rather than college students, would be able
to reduce random daily events’ effects on
emotional dysregulation and help detect if
meditation has a subtle effect. Another idea
for a future study would be to determine if
meditation has an effect on orbitofrontal
cortex activity measured more directly (e.g.,
by fMRI).
4.3 Implications of Results
A possible application for our findings
would be the use of the Go-NoGo task as a
predictor of emotional dysregulation. It
could be used similarly to our correlational
study, measuring emotional dysregulation at
the end of the day over several days to
compare the effects of an activity intended
to help reduce someone’s emotional
dysregulation to help them find what works,
or does not work, to help reduce emotional
dysregulation.
We conducted these experiments in hopes
to gain a better understanding of our
emotions by controlling emotional

dysregulation with meditation to work with
our emotions rather than against. Based on
the information extracted, disappointingly
our experimental study could not signify that
meditating alone will improve emotional
regulation. Further research and time would
need to be conducted to discover what
conditions make meditation more effective
or testing of other methods of affecting
orbitofrontal cortex functioning and
emotional dysregulation.

References
Karimizadeh, A., Mahnam, A., Yazdchi, M.
R., & Besharat, M. A. (2015). Individual
differences in personality traits:
Perfectionism and the brain structure.
Journal of Psychophysiology, 29(3), 107–
111. https://doiorg.libsecure.camosun.bc.ca:2443/10.102
7/0269-8803/a000141
Petrovic, P., Ekman, C., Klahr, J.,
Tigerström, L., Rydén, G., Johansson, A.,
Sellgren, C., Golkar, A., Olsson, A.,
Öhman, A., Ingvar, M., Landén, M.
(2016) Significant grey matter changes in
a region of the orbitofrontal cortex in
healthy participants predicts emotional
dysregulation. Social Cognitive and
Affective Neuroscience, 11(7), 1041–
1049,
https://doi.org/10.1093/scan/nsv072
Watford, T. S., & Stafford, J. (2015). The
impact of mindfulness on emotion
dysregulation and psychophysiological
reactivity under emotional provocation.
Psychology of Consciousness: Theory,
Research, and Practice, 2(1), 90–109.
https://doiorg.libsecure.camosun.bc.ca:2443/10.103
7/cns0000039
Yeh, Y. C., Hsu, W. C., & Li, P. H. (2018).
The modulation of personal traits in
neural responses during the aesthetic
experience of mundane art. Trends in
22

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Neuroscience and Education, 10, 8–18.
https://doi.org/https://www.elsevier.com/l
ocate/tine

23

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Table 1
Correlations for Study Variables

Variables

Participant
#1

Participant
#2

Participant
#3

Pooled raw
data

Pooled
standardized
data

r

n

r

n

r

n

r

n

r

n

-.22

7

-.79*

7

.09

7

-.25

21

-.31

21

-.01

7

.36

7

.32

7

.23

21

.22

21

-.03

7

-.80*

7

-.60

7

-.68*

21

-.48*

21

Postcentral Gyrus
Functioning &
Positive Emotions
Posterior Parietal
Functioning &
Negative
Perfectionism
Orbitofrontal Cortex
Functioning &
Emotional
Dysregulation

* p < .05.

24

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Table 2
Descriptive Statistics for Emotional Dysregulation (Self Measured) Across Different
Orbitofrontal Cortex Activity Conditions

Condition
Meditate

Non-Meditate

Statistic

Participant Participant Participant
#1
#2
#3

Pooled
raw
data

Pooled
standardized
data

M

6.75

11.25

-10

5.73

0.18

SD

4.99

6.60

5.57

8.47

0.81

n

4

4

3

11

11

M

4

10.67

-9

1.10

-0.20

SD

3.61

15.95

11.69

13.92

1.09

n

3

3

4

10

10

Note. M, SD, and n, represent mean, standard deviation, and sample size, respectively. Emotional
Dysregulation Questionnaire Score (-25 to 67). (See Appendix A)
* p < .05 for comparison of meditate condition with its respective non-meditate condition.

25

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Table 3
Descriptive Statistics for Emotional Dysregulation (Other Measured) Across Different
Orbitofrontal Cortex Activity Conditions

Condition
Meditate

Non-Meditate

Statistic

Participant Participant Participant
#1
#2
#3

Pooled
raw
data

Pooled
standardized
data

M

-0.75

-5.50

-3

-5.00

-0.22

SD

3.84

9.47

8.89

7.24

0.93

n

4

4

3

11

11

M

-0.33

7.67

-8.25

-1.40

0.24

SD

1.5

10.79

13.67

11.20

0.96

n

3

3

4

10

10

Note. M, SD, and n, represent mean, standard deviation, and sample size, respectively. Emotional
Dysregulation Questionnaire Score (-25 to 67). (See Appendix A)
* p < .05 for comparison of meditate condition with its respective non-meditate condition.

26

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 1:
Association Between Postcentral Gyrus and Positive Emotion using Pooled Raw Data.

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
and yellow = participant #3.

27

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 2

Association Between Postcentral Gyrus and Positive Emotion Using Pooled Standardized Data

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
and yellow = participant #3.

28

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 3
Association Between Posterior Parietal and Negative Perfectionism Using Pooled Raw Data

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
and yellow = participant #3. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping
markers.

29

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 4
Association Between Posterior Parietal and Negative Perfectionism Using Pooled Standardized
Data

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
and yellow = participant #3. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping
markers.

30

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 5

Association Between Orbitofrontal Cortex and Emotion Dysregulation Using Pooled Raw Data

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
and yellow = participant #3. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping
markers.

31

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 6
Association Between Orbitofrontal Cortex and Emotion Dysregulation Using Pooled
Standardized Data

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
and yellow = participant #3. Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping
markers.

32

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 7
Average Emotional Dysregulation (Self Measured) Across Different Orbitofrontal Cortex
Activity Conditions Using Pooled Raw Data

Notes. Emotional Dysregulation (Self Measured) scores are shown for meditate and non-meditate
conditions using pooled raw data from all participants. Errors bars show ± 95% confidence
levels. Overlapping scatterplot shows data from each participant. Marker colour differentiates
participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2, and yellow = participant #3.

33

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 8
Average Emotional Dysregulation (Self Measured) Across Different Orbitofrontal Cortex
Activity Conditions Using Pooled Standardized Data

Notes. Emotional Dysregulation (Self Measured) scores are shown for meditate and non-meditate
conditions using pooled raw data from all participants. Errors bars show ± 95% confidence
levels. Overlapping scatter plot shows data from each participant. Marker colour differentiates
participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2, and yellow = participant #3.

34

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 9
Average Emotional Dysregulation (Other Measured) Across Different Orbitofrontal Cortex
Activity Conditions Using Pooled Raw Data

Notes. Emotional Dysregulation (Other Measured) scores are shown for meditate and nonmeditate conditions using pooled raw data from all participants. Errors bars show ± 95%
confidence levels. Overlapping scatterplot shows data from each participant. Marker colour
differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2, and yellow = participant
#3.

35

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Figure 10
Average Emotional Dysregulation (Other Measured) Across Different Orbitofrontal Cortex
Activity Conditions Using Pooled Standardized Data

Notes. Emotional Dysregulation (Other Measured) scores are shown for meditate and nonmeditate conditions using pooled raw data from all participants. Error bars show ± 95%
confidence levels. Overlapping scatter plot shows data from each participant. Marker colour
differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2, and yellow = participant
#3.

36

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Appendix A: Modified DERS

37

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Appendix A-2: Original DERS

38

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Appendix B-1: Original Positive and Negative Perfectionism Scale (link)

39

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

40

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

41

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

42

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

43

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

44

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Appendix B-2: Modified Negative Perfectionism Scale

45

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

46

Kay, Ma, & Holland - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2022). Vol. 4(1), pp. 14-47.

Appendix C-1:Random photo generator: https://randomwordgenerator.com/picture.php
Appendix C-2: Aesthetic Experience Evaluation and Emotional Response Evaluation

47