Available online at:
https://cc.arcabc.ca/islandora/object/cc%3Apsycjournal

J Camosun Psyc Res. (2025). Vol. 7(1), pp. 9-24.
Submitted Fall 2024; accepted May 2025.

The Effects of Chocolate’s Cacao Content on Women's
Health and Wellbeing.
Authors: Ella Sokolosky*, Giovana Morais, Sierra Rose, and Miranda Aguado-Burke
Supervising Instructor: Michael Pollock, Psyc 245 (“Drugs and Behaviour”)
Department of Psychology, Camosun College, 3100 Foul Bay Road, Victoria, BC, Canada V8P 5J2
*Corresponding author email: ecsokolosky@gmail.com

ABSTRACT
In this paper, we sought to understand the effects of chocolate’s cacao content on women's
health and wellbeing. Previous research has found that chocolate helps relieve negative
symptoms of the female menstrual cycle such as chocolate cravings, intensity of menstrual
cramp pain, fatigue symptoms, and fluctuating emotional symptoms, such as anxiety, irritability,
depression, and anger. In our correlational study, we tested the strength of these relationships by
examining naturalistic daily changes in their variables longitudinally over a period of nine days.
We measured cacao by the amount of chocolate consumed multiplied by the percentage of its
cacao content, and we rated chocolate craving, mood, menstrual pain, and fatigue by subjective
scales taken three times a day. Data pooled across participants in our study showed that cacao
consumption was significantly correlated with chocolate craving but not with menstrual pain,
mood, or fatigue. Our research question was if cacao could be a factor in helping with a woman's
monthly menstrual cycle and the symptoms that accompany these fluctuations in hormones and
monthly pains, moods, cravings, and fatigue. Because of the limitations of the college schedule
and lining up each participant's monthly menses, we were not able to capture the specific time of
the month that would show increased symptoms, leading to more specific data on cacao being a
factor as it relates specifically to a woman's monthly menstrual cycle.
1. Introduction
1.1 Research Problem
There is a common belief that chocolate
consumption is linked to women’s menstrual
cycles. This research study aimed to
investigate the relationship between
consumption of chocolate’s cacao content
and women's health. Specifically, we
endeavored to determine how cacao is
related to chocolate cravings and physical
symptoms, such menstrual cramps, which,
despite being normalized, represent a major

problem in the daily lives of the female
population. Furthermore, we explored the
relationship between chocolate and
emotional symptoms associated with
hormonal fluctuations, which can frequently
disrupt daily functioning and negatively
impact emotional well-being. Many women
also experience fatigue at points during their
menstrual cycle, and chocolate’s cacao
contains compounds like caffeine and
theobromine that are known to impact
energy levels. Our study delved deeper into
the correlation between chocolate and the
menstrual cycle to democratize scientific
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knowledge and to reduce myths and the
trivialization of issues related to the female
menstrual cycle.
1.2 Literature Review
One aspect of menstrual symptoms that
chocolate consumption has been found to
ease is cravings for chocolate itself. For
example, in a study by Michener and Rozin
(1994) researchers looked at cravings and
tested for satiation of these chocolate
cravings. The study used 34 participants that
were undergraduates in psychology (29
females and 5 males) and each reported
having chocolate cravings at least once per
week. In the Michener and Rozin (1994)
study looking at the satiation of craving,
Participants indicated the level of their
subjective craving using a visual analog
scale with 100mm lines anchored with the
words “just noticeable” on the left and
“uncontrollable” on the extreme right, with
the midpoint defined as “I would go out of
my way to obtain chocolate.” Each person
was given a random box, each box
containing differing items: a milk chocolate
bar, a white chocolate bar (containing none
of the pharmacological components of
chocolate), placebo capsules, nothing, or
white chocolate plus cacao capsules. As
soon as the participant noticed a craving
they took the subjective scale measuring the
intensity of the craving and opened the
random box containing the chocolate or
other items to consume or received nothing.
They self-rated a second time immediately
after consuming the contents, and a third
time 90 minutes later. No other food or
drinks were taken during this time except
water. When milk chocolate was eaten after
the onset of craving, the self-rated craving
was reduced from an average rating of 74
before ingestion, to 16 just after, and 13 at
90 minutes later indicating a significant

reduction in the intensity of the craving.
Based on these results, the researchers
suggested that eating the milk chocolate
reduced subjective craving, however the
other methods of ingesting chocolate such as
swallowing cacao capsules and eating white
chocolate did not show much reduction in
feelings of craving.
In addition to relieving alterations in
cravings during menstrual periods,
menstrual discomfort and dysmenorrhea
have also been found to be eased by
chocolate consumption. As an example of
this relationship, there is a study carried out
by Satriawati et Al. (2020) with students
from SMP Negeri 1 Bangkalan who had
dysmenorrhea. The way this research was
approached included 54 participants, who
were divided into two groups of 27
participants through simple random
sampling. The participants were placed in
experimental groups where chocolate and
warm compresses administered and in
control groups where neither of those were
administered and data analysis. The
researchers used primary data collected
through observation sheets and
questionnaires during September-October
2017, using a scale from 0-10 to measure
menstrual pain. Based on the data collected,
the researchers suggested that the intake of
chocolate and the use of hot compresses
resulted in a reduction in the intensity and
recurrence of pain experienced by these
women.
A third factor that has previously been
found to ease symptoms during the
menstrual cycle, such as negative mood, is
ingesting a certain amount of flavanol-rich
cacao extract. For example, in a randomized,
double-blind, placebo-controlled study by
Murakami et al. (2023), the effects of
flavanol-rich cacao extract were investigated
in healthy women aged 40-60 who reported
having high stress levels and fatigue.
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Participants were randomized into two
groups, one receiving a beverage containing
cacao flavanols (240 mg/200 mL/day) and
the other receiving a placebo (0 mg/200
mL/day) with similar taste and appearance
each day for eight weeks. Before and after
the experiment, the participants’ mood,
fatigue, and autonomic nervous system
levels were measured. To evaluate mood at
weeks 0 and 8, the Profile of Moods Status
second edition (POMS2)-brief was used.
The experiment results showed that negative
mood markers (which include depression,
anger, and fatigue) and the score of total
mood disturbance were significantly lower
in the experimental group versus the control
group. The flavanol-rich cacao extract
promoted positive moods in the participants
while suppressing negative moods. Based
on these results, the researchers suggested
that flavanol-rich cacao can improve mood
conditions and support the activity levels of
middle-aged women.
An additional negative symptom related
to the menstrual cycle that chocolate
consumption has previously been found to
ease is fatigue. For example, in an
experimental study by Nurazizah et al.
(2015), the researchers investigated the
effects of consuming black chocolate on
premenstrual syndrome (PMS) symptoms in
women aged 18-22. The researchers
recruited a single group of participants that
consisted of 30 individuals with PMS and
had them consume 20 grams of black
chocolate each day for 14 days leading up to
their luteal phase. Before and after chocolate
consumption, the participants filled out an
ordinal scale with questions containing a
measurement scale with a rating of 0-5
which represented the intensity of PMS
symptoms, including fatigue, in the
participants daily life. Specifically, 0
represents no symptoms, 1: has symptoms
but they do not impact daily functioning, 2:

symptoms slightly interfere with daily
functioning, 3: symptoms interfere with
daily functioning, 4: symptoms significantly
interfere with daily functioning, 5:
symptoms impair functioning completely.
The participants found that there was a
significant reduction in reported fatigue
symptoms after 14 days of daily black
chocolate consumption. Based on these
results, the researchers suggested that black
chocolate consumption can significantly
reduce feelings of fatigue in women aged
18-22 with PMS.
1.3 Hypotheses
Based on the above literature review, we
predicted the following hypotheses:
● Hypothesis #1: If cacao consumption
increases then chocolate cravings will
decrease.
● Hypothesis #2: If cacao consumption
increases then menstrual pain will decrease.
● Hypothesis #3: If cacao consumption
increases then mood will increase.
● Hypothesis #4: If cacao consumption
increases then fatigue will decrease.
2. Methods
2.1 Participants
The 4 authors of this paper served as the
participants in its study. The participants
ranged in age from 19 to 49 years old, with
an average age of 28.75 years, and included
all cisgender females. The participants were
all undergraduate students at Camosun
College who completed the current study as
an assignment for Psyc 245 (“Drugs and
Behavior”) and were grouped together due
to their mutual interest in chocolate and
women’s health. All of the participants
consumed chocolate on a weekly basis or
more and the amounts that the participants
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consumed during this study fell within that
range.
2.2 Materials and Procedures
We performed a correlational study to
test concurrently all of our hypotheses by
examining naturalistic daily changes in their
variables longitudinally. Each participant
kept a study journal with them at all times
over this study’s nine-day period in order to
record self observations of the following
five variables: (1) chocolate craving, (2)
menstrual pain, (3) mood, (4) fatigue, and
(5) cacao consumption.
2.2.1 Chocolate Craving
To measure chocolate craving, each of
the participants recorded how strongly they
were craving chocolate on a subjective scale
from 1 to 5, where 1 = none, 2 = mild, 3 =
moderate, 4 = strong, and 5 = very strong.
Each participant recorded the intensity of
their chocolate craving three times per day at
11am, 3pm and 7pm and calculated the daily
average scores.
2.2.2 Menstrual Pain
To measure the recurrence of menstrual
pain, each participant rated on a scale from 0
to 5 how unpleasant they felt throughout the
recording data days. The participants
recorded in their study journals their level of
pain three times a day at 11:00am, 3:00pm,
and 7:00pm, no matter whether they had
consumed chocolate or not. The following
responses were used in this Pain Impact
Questionnaire: 0 indicates no pain; 1
signifies tolerable pain that does not impact
activities; 2 denotes tolerable pain that
impairs some activities; 3 represents
intolerable pain that does not impair
watching TV, reading, or using a phone; 4 is
severe pain; significantly limits all activities,
including passive ones, but some

engagement is still possible with effort and
lastly 5: pain that prevents all activities,
including basic self-care, requiring
assistance. The data collected for menstrual
pain was calculated as a daily average score.
2.2.3 Mood
To measure various mood states,
participants used a scale from -100 to 100 to
indicate their overall mood upon recording
their responses. The following response
anchors were used: -100 = Extremely
Unpleasant, -50 = Moderately Unpleasant, 0
= Neutral, 50 = Moderately Pleasant, and
100 = Extremely Pleasant. Mood was
measured at the following three times each
day: 11:00 am, 3:00 pm, and 7:00 pm. We
then calculated this data as a daily average
score.
2.2.4 Fatigue
To measure fatigue, each participant
recorded their subjective level of fatigue on
a scale from 1 to 5 three times a day at
11:00am, 3:00pm, and 7:00pm for seven
days in a study journal. The subjective scale
was from 1 to 5, where 1 indicated no
symptoms, 2 indicated mild symptoms, 3
indicated moderate symptoms, 4 indicated
strong symptoms, and 5 indicated very
strong symptoms. This data was then
calculated as a daily average score.
2.2.5 Cacao Consumption
To measure the amount of cacao
consumed each day, we multiplied the total
amount of chocolate consumed (in grams)
by the percentage of it that contained cacao.
2.3 Planned Analyses
To assess the strength and statistical
significance of associations between the
variables predicted by our 4 hypotheses, we
performed Pearson product-moment
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correlations of their predictor variables
(chocolate craving, menstrual pain, mood,
and fatigue) with their outcome variable
(cacao consumption). For testing Hypothesis
#1, we correlated the daily average score of
the intensity of our chocolate cravings and
the total grams of cacao consumed. For
testing Hypothesis #2, we correlated daily
average scores for the recurrence of
menstrual pain and the total grams of cacao
consumed. For testing Hypothesis #3, we
correlated the daily average scores of mood
with the total grams of cacao consumed. For
testing Hypothesis # 4, we correlated the
daily average score of fatigue level and total
grams of cacao consumed. We performed all
of the above correlations separately for each
participant as well as using data pooled
across all of the participants. For the
correlations using pooled data, in addition to
using the raw data, we also performed
correlations after we had first transformed
the data from each participant into z-scores
in order to standardize differences in
averages and variability seen between the
participants in their data and thus make them
more comparable. A correlation coefficient
was considered statistically significant if the
probability of its random occurrence (p) was
< .05 (i.e., less than 5% of the time expected
by chance alone).

not be analyzed since they showed no
variance in their zero pain levels during the
time of this study’s data collection, which
fell outside of their menstrual periods. Cacao
consumption was not significantly correlated
with menstrual pain in either of the two
remaining participants that did show
variance in their pain levels (all absolute r ≤
0.19, all p ≥ 0.64), in their pooled raw data
(r = 0.20, p = 0.43, see Figure 3), nor in their
pooled standardized data (r = 0.01, p = 0.96,
see Figure 4). Cacao consumption was not
significantly correlated with mood in any of
the participants (all absolute r ≤ 0.37, all p ≥
0.35), in the pooled raw data (r = 0.10, p =
0.57, see Figure 5), nor in the pooled
standardized data (r = 0.18, p = 0.30, see
Figure 6). Cacao consumption was not
significantly correlated with fatigue in any
of the participants (all absolute r ≤ 0.54, all
p ≥ 0.14), in the pooled raw data (r = 0.21, p
= 0.21, see Figure 7), nor in the pooled
standardized data (r = 0.07, p = 0.68, see
Figure 8). In a comparison of all the
correlation coefficients when using the
pooled standardized data for their analyses,
the variable that cacao consumption showed
the strongest correlation with was chocolate
craving, with an r-value of -.50, indicating a
large effect size (r ≥ 0.50).
4. Discussion

3. Results
4.1 Summary of Results
As shown in Table 1, cacao consumption
was significantly correlated with chocolate
craving but not with menstrual pain, mood,
or fatigue. Cacao consumption was
significantly correlated with chocolate
craving in two of the participants (r = 0.75
and 0.67, p = 0.017 and 0.045), in the pooled
raw data (r = 0.60, p = 0.000006, see Figure
1), and in the pooled standardized data (r =
0.50, p = 0.002, see Figure 2). Menstrual
pain data from two of the participants could

Based on previous research, we
hypothesized that increases in cacao
consumption would be followed by
decreases in craving for chocolate
(Hypothesis #1), decreases in menstrual pain
(Hypothesis #2), improvements in mood
(Hypothesis #3), and decreases in fatigue
symptoms (Hypothesis #4). Data pooled
across participants in our correlational study
did not support any of these hypotheses.
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Although a statistically significant
correlation was found between cacao
consumption and chocolate cravings, it was
in the opposite direction from what we were
predicting, indicating that as cacao
consumption increased, so did the craving
for chocolate.
4.2 Relation of Results to Past Research
The first hypothesis, based on the
Michener & Rozin (1994) study, predicted
that chocolate craving would decrease as
cacao consumption increased. This was
unsupported based on our correlational study
results and instead showed the opposite
direction, with chocolate craving increasing
as cacao consumption increased. These
differing results could be due to our
calculating an average chocolate craving
score across different times of day, so that
some chocolate craving measurements could
have preceded cacao consumption and
actually produced higher rates of cacao
consumption instead of the other way
around, with cacao consumption instead
affecting chocolate cravings.
The second hypothesis, based on the
study by Satriawati et al. (2020), predicted
that menstrual pain would decrease as
chocolate consumption increased. However,
this hypothesis was not supported by our
results. There were numerous differences in
the way the studies were conducted that
might have led to these discrepant results.
Since we had to follow the college schedule,
we were unable to collect data during
participants’ menstrual period, which may
have led to a lack of correlation between the
variables. There were two main differences
in the way the studies were conducted which
may have led to a lack of correlation
between the variables. First, we were unable
to collect data during participants’ menstrual
periods due to the college schedule and

participant’s monthly menses not being
within that time frame. A second factor
could be that variables in this study were
recorded as daily averages, and a more
specific recording of the times that cacao
was eaten could make a difference to the
data collected.
The third hypothesis, based on the results
from previous experimental research by
Murakami et al. (2023), predicted that cacao
consumption would promote positive mood
states and suppress negative moods.
Although the results from Murakami et al.’s
(2023) research were significant enough to
suggest that flavanol-rich cacao extract can
improve mood conditions in middle-aged
women, the current study found no statistical
significance between mood and cacao
consumption. However, there are differences
between the current study and the research
study by Murakami et al. (2023) that may
have factored into the resulting lack of
statistical significance. Participants in the
previous research experiment consumed
beverages every day, containing either
cacao-flavanols or a placebo beverage for a
total of 8 weeks. The cacao-flavanol content
contained numerous compounds, including
two methylxanthines: caffeine (19mg) and
theobromine (106mg). Not only was there an
approximate 6-week difference in measuring
chocolate consumption between the current
study and Murakami et al.’s (2023)
experiment, but the type of chocolate and
cacao-flavanol content consumed during the
9 days of the current study varied by
participant. Although the amount of cacao
(240 mg per day) consumed by the
experimental group in that study was within
the range (0 to 32000 mg per day) consumed
by participants in our study, our lack of
statistical significance between mood and
chocolate consumption could have been due
to an insufficient duration of chronic
exposure to consistently high levels.
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Moreover, the lack of statistical significance
could be due to the current study participants
being in different phases of their menstrual
cycle and the fact that none were
experiencing menstruation during data
collection. If participants were experiencing
PMS or menstruation with mood
fluctuations, this may further the chances of
there being a correlation between chocolate
consumption and mood.
The fourth hypothesis, based on previous
experimental research by Nurazizah et al,
predicted that cacao consumption would be
correlated with lower levels of fatigue
symptoms. However, the current study
found no statistically significant results
between chocolate consumption and fatigue.
Nurazizah et al.’s study differed from ours
in multiple ways that could possibly have
led to these discrepant results. For example,
Nurazizah et al. (2015) tested 30 participants
who were experiencing PMS by giving them
20 grams of black chocolate everyday for 14
days leading up to their luteal phase. In the
current study, the participants were at
various times throughout their menstrual
cycle with data collected each day for 9
days. So it is highly likely the difference in
results was due to the fact that none of our
participants were experiencing menstruation
during data collection.
4.3 Implications of Results
This study looked at cacao consumption
and the effects on women's well-being when
experiencing symptoms in relation to
menstruation and the monthly changes in
hormones that can produce craving, fatigue,
pain, and mood fluctuations. The limited
timeframe within the course schedule
prevented us from capturing these important
overlaps specific to each participant's

menses cycle. Future research studies could
investigate further into the specific dates and
time of the month for female participants
needed to capture whether correlations exist
between the variables under investigation.
To shed light on ways of reducing the
negative symptoms associated with
menstruation could be helpful, as women
experience this reproductive cycle for much
of their lives.
References
Michener, W., & Rozin, P. (1994).
Pharmacological versus sensory factors in
the satiation of chocolate craving.
Physiology & Behavior, 56(3), 419–422.
https://doiorg.libsecure.camosun.bc.ca:2443/10.101
6/0031-9384(94)90283-6
Murakami R, Natsume M, Ito K, Ebihara S,
Terauchi M. (2023). Effect of flavanolrich cacao extract on the profile of mood
state in healthy middle-aged japanese
women: A randomized, double-blind,
placebo-controlled pilot study. Nutrients
15(17), 3843.
https://doi.org/10.3390/nu15173843
Nurazizah, E., Tih, F., & Suwindere, W.
(2015). Black chocolate consumption
reduces subjective symptoms in 18-22
years old females with premenstrual
syndrome. Journal of Medicine and
Health, 1(1), 76–84.
https://doi.org/10.28932/jmh.v1i1.502
Satriawati, A. C., Kusmiyati, Y.,&
Nugraheny, E. (2020). The influence of
combination of warm compression and
chocolate against menstrual pain
reduction (dysmenorrhea) in teens in
SMP negeri 1 bangkalan. Gynecology
and obstetrics, 8(1), 36-42.
10.21927/jnki.2020.8(1)

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Table 1
Correlations for Study Variables

Variables

Cacao Consumption &
Chocolate Craving
Cacao Consumption &
Menstrual Pain
Cacao Consumption &
Mood
Cacao Consumption &
Fatigue

Participant
#1

Participant
#2

Participant
#3

Participant
#4

Pooled raw
data

Pooled
standardize
d data

r

n

r

n

r

n

r

n

r

n

r

n

0.75*

9

0.67*

9

0.44

9

0.13

9

0.60*

36

0.50*

36

-0.17

9

0.19

9

0.20

18

0.01

18

0.13

9

0.18

9

0.37

9

0.04

9

0.10

36

0.18

36

0.54

9

-0.35

9

0.05

9

0.06

9

0.21

36

0.07

36

* p < .05.

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Figure 1
Association Between Cocoa Consumption and Chocolate Craving Using Pooled Raw Data

Chocolate Craving (Scale 1 to 5; 1 = No
Craving, 5 = Very Strong Craving)

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

5

10

15
20
Cocoa Consumption (Grams)

25

30

35

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
yellow = participant #3, and green = participant #4. Some data might not be visible in the figure
due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 2
Association Between Cocoa Consumption and Chocolate Craving Using Pooled Standardized
Data
2

Chocolate Craving (z-score)

1.5

-2

1
0.5
0
-1.5

-1

-0.5

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5
-3
Cocoa Consumption (z-score)

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
yellow = participant #3, green = participant #4. Some data might not be visible in the figure due
to overlapping markers.

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Figure 3

Menstrual Pain (Scale 0 to 5; 0 = No Pain, 5 =
Extreme Pain)

Association Between Cocoa Consumption and Menstrual Pain Using Pooled Raw Data

1.2
1
0.8
0.6
0.4

0.2
0
0

5

10
15
20
Cocoa Consumption (Grams)

25

30

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1 and yellow = participant #3.
Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 4
Association Between Cocoa Consumption and Menstrual Pain Using Pooled Standardized Data

2

Menstrual Pain (z-score)

1.5

-2

1
0.5
0
-1.5

-1

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

-0.5
-1

-1.5
Cocoa Consumption (z-score)

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1 and yellow = participant #3.
Some data might not be visible in the figure due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 5
Association Between Cocoa Consumption and Mood Using Pooled Raw Data

Mood (Scale Part B: -100 to 100;-100 =
Extremely Unpleasant, 100 = Extremely
Pleasant)

100
80
60
40
20
0
0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

-20
-40
-60

Cocoa Consumption (Grams)

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
yellow = participant #3, and green = participant #4. Some data might not be visible in the figure
due to overlapping markers.

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Figure 6
Association Between Cocoa Consumption and Mood Using Pooled Standardized Data

2
1.5
1

Mood (z-score)

0.5
-2

0
-1.5

-1

-0.5

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

-1
-1.5
-2
-2.5

-3
Cocoa Consumption (z-score)

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
yellow = participant #3, green = participant #4. Some data might not be visible in the figure due
to overlapping markers.

22

Sokolosky, Morais, Rose, & Aguado-Burke - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2025). Vol. 7(1), pp. 9-24.

Figure 7

Fatigue (Scale 1 to 5; 1 = No Symptoms, 5 =
Very Strong Symptoms)

Association Between Cocoa Consumption and Fatigue Using Pooled Raw Data

4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
0

5

10

15
20
Cocoa Consumption (Grams)

25

30

35

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
yellow = participant #3, green = participant #4. Some data might not be visible in the figure due
to overlapping markers.

23

Sokolosky, Morais, Rose, & Aguado-Burke - J Camosun Psyc Res. (2025). Vol. 7(1), pp. 9-24.

Figure 8
Association Between Cocoa Consumption and Fatigue Using Pooled Standardized Data

2.5
2
1.5

Fatigue (z-score)

1

-2

0.5
0
-1.5

-1

-0.5

-0.5

0

0.5

1

1.5

2

2.5

-1
-1.5

-2
-2.5
Cocoa Consumption (z-score)

Notes. Marker colour differentiates participants: red = participant #1, orange = participant #2,
yellow = participant #3, green = participant #4. Some data might not be visible in the figure due
to overlapping markers.

24